Mundhum as a living framework: How Kirat oral traditions redefine political agency amid Nepal’s generational upheavals

Mundhum is not merely a cultural artifact but a living system of governance, law, and ecological knowledge that has sustained Kirat society for millennia, encoding principles of reciprocity, collective memory, and resistance to state assimilation. Its oral transmission ensures adaptability to modern political contexts, as seen in the 2025 youth movements where young Kiratis invoked ancestral narratives to critique Nepal’s exclusionary citizenship laws. The suppression of Mundhum under Nepal’s 1962 Panchayat regime and its partial revival post-1990 highlight its role as a counter-hegemonic tool.

The Kirat people trace their political traditions to the 7th–9th century Kirat Kingdom, a period when Mundhum was institutionalised as a framework for inter-clan diplomacy and territorial governance. Nepal’s 2015 constitution’s failure to recognise indigenous self-governance mirrors colonial-era policies of cultural assimilation, such as the 1854 *Muluki Ain* that criminalised non-Hindu practices. The 2025 youth movements echo earlier Kirat rebellions, like the 1992 Limbuwan agitation, where oral traditions were weaponised against state centralisation.

In Latin America, the Zapatista movement’s use of indigenous oral traditions to articulate autonomy aligns with Kirat strategies, where storytelling becomes a form of political pedagogy. The Māori *kaupapa Māori* movement similarly frames education and governance through ancestral narratives, demonstrating how oral epistemologies bridge past and present struggles. The African concept of *Sankofa* (‘go back and fetch it’) encapsulates Mundhum’s temporal fluidity, where the past is not a relic but a tool for present action.

Oral traditions like Mundhum have been empirically linked to community resilience in the face of state violence, as documented in anthropological studies of indigenous political movements in the Andes and Southeast Asia. Neuroscientific research on oral storytelling suggests it enhances collective memory and social cohesion, mechanisms critical to sustained political mobilisation. The 2025 Kirat youth movements’ reliance on Mundhum aligns with psychological findings on identity-based resistance, where cultural narratives buffer against marginalisation.

Mundhum’s poetic and rhythmic structures—such as the *Sili* chants—transform political grievances into spiritual acts, where dissent becomes a sacred duty. The use of traditional instruments like the *Yalambar* drum in protests mirrors West African griot traditions, where music encodes historical injustices and collective aspirations. Kirat artists like Durga Lal Shrestha have reimagined Mundhum through modern media, demonstrating its capacity to evolve without losing its essence.

Mundhum’s emphasis on intergenerational justice offers a model for addressing Nepal’s constitutional crises, where indigenous rights are pitted against federalism debates. Scenario planning could integrate Mundhum into climate adaptation strategies, as Kirat communities’ agroecological knowledge aligns with regenerative agriculture. The global rise of indigenous political movements (e.g., Standing Rock, Mapuche resistance) suggests Mundhum’s principles could inform transnational solidarity networks.

Within the Kirat community, marginalised groups such as Dalit Kiratis and women elders are often excluded from Mundhum’s public transmission, despite their roles in preserving its ecological and social dimensions. The 2025 movements risk replicating these hierarchies unless they centre the voices of Kirat women, who have historically been the primary custodians of oral traditions. Cross-border indigenous networks, like the Himalayan Indigenous Peoples’ Forum, could amplify these voices while challenging Nepal’s Brahminical state structures.